It is a curious fact that, while the influence of ancient (or classical) Greek accomplishment has been dealt with in Philosophy, Science, Literature, Fine Arts, and Architecture, similar influence on Music has been much less acknowledged or discussed. This, despite the fact that with the exception of the Faust and Don Juan figure, most other art archetypes have been based on the ancient Greek models. This article has been written to redress this balance. It has a 2-fold purpose: a) to indicate why the re-creation of the ancient Greek drama, mythology and philosophical thought in musical form should be of interest to the reader, whether a musician, an artist of sorts, a historian, a politician, a teacher, and especially, a Greek American, and b) to describe some of the important works well enough to serve as a guide for those who, true to Greek form, will want to keep on learning.

This article will show that far from being dead, Greek thought is still relevant and serves as a creative fertilizer to artists and musicians. Furthermore, music is universal, and as such can serve to make the original works available to people not familiar with the original. Also, great art can shed new light to great art; great musicians can illuminate aspects of the original that may have been dormant in it.

To make the treatment more tractable, I divided the works in three categories.

1: Greek Drama in Music (Oresteia, for instance), 2: Works about Greeks (Socrates, Symposium, Heraclitus, etc.) 3: Works based on Mythology or Poetry
(Hercules, Ariadne, etc.). I will also include a list of the most important works and some relevant facts in the Introduction Section. Works in the first two categories will be discussed in some detail, those in the third somewhat less so. I will steer a balance between historical, musicological, and musical comments.

If I had to pick a single opera to recommend about the surviving Greek dramas, it would be Harry Partch's Revelation in the Courthouse Park, a frighteningly original musical play, a modern American version of Euripides' The Bacchae. But why stay with a single recommendation? Enesco's Oedipe is for me the most successful over-all musical rendering of a Greek drama (actually two); Richard Strauss' Elektra is the most dramatic, brutal, deservedly best known; Stravinsky's opera-oratorio, Oedipus Rex in Latin (!), the most monumental; Taneyev's Oresteia, though in Russian, is probably most conventionally operatic, easy on the ear for those not overly adventurous, at least musically. And to hear a great singer like Maria Callas (as captured in records) in Cherubini's Medea, almost two hours of beautiful, dramatic music, showing Medea's love, rage, and anger is to be endlessly thrilled, experiencing that complex, tragic character anew.

These are some of the pleasures offered to those willing to re-experience their Greek lore in music.

To introduce this article with a discussion of why the ancient Greek accomplishment is still of interest would be to preach to the choir. Besides, Hanson's and Heath's book, Who Killed Homer ? has carried out that task most admirably. My task is a more difficult one, to indicate why the re-creation of the ancient Greek drama, and Greek figures and thought in musical form should be of interest to the reader, whether one is a musician, an artist of sorts, a historian, a politician, a teacher, and especially, a Greek American. This can best be done by demonstrating, as the article will indicate, that far from being dead, Greek thought is still relevant and serves as a creative fertilizer to artists and musicians. Furthermore, music is universal, and as such can serve to make the original works available to people not familiar with the original. Also, great art can shed new light to great art; great musicians can illuminate aspects of the original that may have been dormant in it. Finally, it is just great fun.

It is a curious fact that, while the influence of ancient (or classical) Greek accomplishment has been dealt with in Philosophy, Science, Literature, and Architecture, similar influence on Fine Arts and Music has been much less acknowledged or discussed. This, despite the fact that with the exception of the Faust and Don Juan figure, most other art archetypes have been based on the ancient Greek models. When I started writing this article, I thought I might be able to cover most important works inspired by the Greek originals. To my surprise, I have found such a vast number of such works that an exhaustive treatment became clearly impossible. In hindsight, this is not surprising, since, along with the Bible, the Greek lore has been the main source of Western artistic subjects. Early operas by Monteverdi and Cavalli in Italy, Lully, Rameau, and Charpentier in France almost exclusively used Greek subjects. In fact, to give you even a small indication of the wealth of Greek-inspired classical music, I needed to restrict the present treatment to works still in the present repertoire, from approximately 1800.

I plan to discuss the most important works in the body of the article. However, the following table gives you and indication of the vastness of musical literature inspired by the Greek lore.

I love classical music but am not a musicologist. I know most of the works I discuss from their recorded performances on LP, CD, or video. In my remarks below I make liberal use of the liner notes by experts who spent time researching the subject, and by the composers, since their comments are always enlightening. Where my direct quotes from the sources are excessive, I give credit in the attached footnotes. However, I try not to interrupt the flow by overdoing it.

To make the tie-in between the music and the plays it is based on easier to follow, before each major discussion I give a brief synopsis of the original play in Italics. Most of these comments are based on Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia. Also, since no discussion dealing with Greeks and music could be complete without at least a fleeting homage to Pythagoras, as a footnote to this paper, a short section will be devoted to him.

I find that the best treatment of the Greek sources in music requires a new musical language, a synthesis of declamation, orchestral painting, and modern psychological insight. The result is not always mellifluous or tuneful. Those expecting arias of Verdi or Puccini may be disappointed. But those who persevere will be richly rewarded by the pleasure of addition insight.

Even though only 32 ancient Greek tragic works have been preserved, only a fraction of these has been used as subject matter by a very few major composers. Curiously, none of the most famous opera composers, Mozart, Donizetti, Bellini, Verdi, Wagner, Puccini have used these works for their subject. Clearly, it is only the intrepid composer who dares put to music the magnificent Greek drama.

The following is a discussion of the major musical works in this category.

The Russian composer, Sergey Taneyev, is the only composer of renown who tackled the formidable Aeschylos trilogy, Oresteia, as a single opera, in 1894. The opera is in three parts, faithfully following the outline of the original. This magnificent undertaking, however, had serious shortcomings. Taneyev refused to allow the work to be cut away, thus precluding the possibility of a more concise, dramatic opera. In addition, his lyrical treatment shortchanged dramatic impact of the original. As Knut Franke has pointed out¹ "The tragic essence of the work…got submerged under the sheer weight of the subject matter….Taneyev set to work as a classicist, and in pairing down the emotional content reduced just those effects which are so vital if a work is to be successful on the stage." On record, however the work is stunning, abounding in remarkable musical touches, not least Cassandra's beautiful aria, Taneyev in his lyrical best with dramatic flashes that indicate what the work might have been, had the composer chosen a more dramatic route. A superb first attempt!

I would like to mention an interesting connection here. As amply illustrated by Evans², Richard Wagner, an avid Greek scholar, designed his Niebelung tetralogy after Aeschylos' Oresteia.

The libretto for Enesco's 1931 opera, Oedipe, by Edmond Fleg, in French, uses a neo-classical versification, slightly at odds with the music's bold modernism. Unlike Stravinsky's Oedipus Rex, which is based on the Sophocles' Oedipus the King, Fleg makes use of the entire Oedipus myth. Enesco's third act corresponds to Sophocles' Oedipus the King, while his fourth act parallels Oedipus at Colonus. The first two acts delve into the sources of ancient Greek legend, and explore material never before tackled on stage. The four acts provide a perfect symphonic arc, the fourth act acting as a peaceful epilogue providing a "sublime and indispensable catharsis absent from Oedipus the King". The drama and originality of Oedipe is "poles apart from the extrovert brutality of (for instance) Richard Strauss's Electra. (According to the writer of liner notes to the EMI Edition, Harry Halbreich³). The shifting chromatics, the harmonic language, and the expressive devices (shouts, whispers, "Schprechstimme") all work to create a musical analog of Sophocles' sonorous original. From its doom-laden Prolog, through the mysterious encounter with the Sphinx, to its quiet, dignified, but ultimately triumphant ending, Enesco's Oedipe comes closer than any other musical work in equaling its model. To hear the scene with the Sphinx click on

Genius is its own law. How else to explain the Russian, Stravinsky, deciding to write an opera/oratorio on Sophocles' Oedipus the King by having Jean Cocteau's French work translated into church Latin and using it as his text? The author's reasons for translating from French backwards into Latin are given in his autobiography. Latin would be a "medium, not dead, but turned to stone, and so monumentalized as to have become immune from vulgarization⁽⁴⁾". Stravinsky claims that he exploits the same rhythmic staticity in the same way as Sophocles, a claim only Greek-speaking audience could validate.

All this would be only of academic interest, were the music not be so glorious. Somehow, the use of Latin, the oratorio style, eschewing dialog and duets, alternating powerful chorus and individual numbers, achieves a monumentality not found in any other musical version of Greek drama. As Stravinsky's assistant, Robert Craft noted so perceptively, the use of Latin gives such a strong ecclesiastic feeling that instead of a Greek tragedy, we seem to be witnessing a Christian morality play.

Almost a chronological and textural sequel to Enesco's Oedipe is Honegger's Antigone, first performed in 1927. It set to music Jean Cocteau's free adaptation in French of Sophocles' Antigone. Cocteau's text eliminates most of the unnecessary talk, and brings out the tragic substance with violent force, and Honegger's music--a mere 47 minutes--fully equals the text. It is less of an opera than musical theater. The music is relentless, violent, full of outbursts. Melody is almost entirely missing from the music. According to Honegger's disciple, Marcel Landowski⁵, the "..new plastics of the word is grounded on three essential principles: a) the singing remains strictly syllabic; b) the singing remains in the middle of the range with no concession to the prestige of the high 'note'--the text as sung takes no longer than the text as spoken; c) finally the tonic accent, generally neglected or deformed in French, is deliberately shifted to give the word its incisive force--quite in the spirit of J.S. Bach, in particular of the recitatives of the Passions.." The work, almost completely lacking repose, is quite drenching. If ultimately less successful than Enseco's Oedipe, is a fitting musical tribute to its dramatic forbear.

Of all music dealing with Greek drama, only Elektra has become a staple of the standard operatic repertoire. The eponymous character appears in four existing Greek tragedies. Strauss's work, completed in 1909, is based on Sophocles' Electra via Hugo von Hofmannsthal's libretto. The glorious opera serves as a beautiful example of the way the ancient Greek tragedy can be refracted though19^th century music and Freudian psychology, letting us re-experience them anew. As Allan Jefferson⁶ pointed out, "Hofmannsthal's main contribution lies in a way in which he lifted classical characters out of the Greek play and reshaped them in a 19^th century fashion." He goes on to say: "The age of Hofmannsthal's Elecktra was the age of Sigmund Freud and whether consciously or not, the poet has taken something of the Viennese sex-master's craft into the creation of the demented princess from Argos…..Hofmannsthal has 'modernized' the old story so it is utterly acceptable and identifiable to every member of present-day audience". Sophocles would have approved!

The opera is a stunning achievement. The opening chords replete with doom, the "Agamemnon motive" stays in one's head for weeks after, the dialogs between Elektra and Chrisothemis are near incestuous, the recognition scene worthy of Aeschylos, Klytemnestra is loathsome beyond words, the ending is truly frightening, with Elektra dancing herself to death in triumph and madness. A must!

Medea, the heroine in Euripides' eponymous play was a sorceress and priestess of Hecate. Fell in love with Jason, she married him and helped him steal the "Golden Fleece". Jason later betrayed her. In revenge, Medea murdered their two children and escaped in a winged chariot drawn by winged serpents.

Few books have been more influential than E. R. Dodds'I The Greeks and the Irrational in providing an important corrective to the conventional view of the Greeks as being rational, logical, "Apollonian". Dodds has shown that underneath, in fact alongside, these attributes have been irrational "Dionysian" strains, in touch with chthonic powers. Forty years later Camille Paglia, in her book, Sexual Personae discusses the same, finding also a parallel with the frightening Dionysian excesses of the Greeks and those of the 1960ies in America. Not surprisingly, this similarity has manifested itself in music as well, especially in Harry Partch's Revelation in the Courthouse Park, taking Euripides' The Bacchae for model. As Partch himself has noted, foreshadowing Paglia's thesis: "Many years ago I was stuck by a strong and strange similarity between the basic situation in the Euripides play and at least two phenomena in present day America. Religious rituals with strong sexual elements…" and "...sex rituals with a strong religious element. (I assume that the mobbing of young male singers by semi-hysterical women is recognizable as a sex ritual for a godhead)."⁷

His musical play (or whatever genre future musicologists will consign it) alternates between the sex, violence, and politics of ancient Thebes and a small mid-Western American town. Dionysus is Dion, a rock star, and the Bacchantes are his groupies. A special mention must be made of Partch's invention and use of entirely new instruments based on Asian, African, and ancient Greek models, which makes his music even more appropriate to its task. The powerful music alternates between the rock style of the late 50ies, revivalist gospel music, and Greek-style declamation. Sampling "I am Dionysus" from Scene one, and especially Choruses "These good old-fashioned thrills", "Oh to be free, to dance with joy" and even more the truly frightening "Hell-hounds of madness" would give the listener an idea of the different styles.

Maybe because Partch was a musical iconoclast, not worried about re-casting the original but interested in creating a new, American genre, Revelation in the Courthouse Park succeeds more than any other opera in evoking the grandeur and terror of its Greek model. It is a truly frightening work.

As I indicated above, my arbitrary criterion for discussing works has been to start with about year 1800 and include those that have been at least partly in the modern repertoire (or at least in my opinion they should be). The above two operas were written in the 1770ies and have seldom been performed of late. Still, I would like to at least acknowledge them, because they round up all the operas that have been written on the surviving 32 Greek dramatic works.

Admittedly, this is a forced category. Still, because there is so much other music aside from that discussed above, I wanted to designate a special group that deals with Socrates, Plato, and Heraclitus.

Bernstein's work is the best depiction of Plato and Socrates in abstract music I am aware of. The work, in essence a chamber Violin Concerto, is based on Plato's Symposium. As Bernstein explanatory notes indicate: "The music, like the dialogue, is a series of related statements in praise of love, and generally follows the Platonic form through the succession of speakers at the banquet". The 5 sections are as follows: 1. Phaedrus: Pausanias, 2. Aristophanes, 3. Eryximachus, 4. Agathon, 5. Sophocles: Alcibiades.

Rarely has music so aptly and nobly caught the spirit of the original.

From its noble opening, to its drama, to its soft, shimmering central sections, onto a jig suggesting its final drunken celebration, it is a stunning piece, deserving to be better known. As the composer said: "If there is a hint of jazz in the celebration, I hope it will not be taken as anachronistic Greek party music but rather as the natural expression of a contemporary American composer imbued with the spirit of that timeless dinner party".

Eric Satie's portrayal of Socrates is probably the only one of its type in music. Satie's work for 4 solo sopranos and chamber orchestra is divided into three parts, all after Plato: Symposium, Phaedrus, and Phaedo. Its aim is to portray Socrates the man, not the philosopher. "I want it to be as white and pure as antiquity", was the composer's aim for his work. By avoiding dynamic excesses and vocal extremes, he managed to produce a noble, restrained work, in his typical non-melodic, aphoristic style. The last section, dealing with Socrates' last hour brings to mind Jacques-Louis David's painting in New York's Metropolitan Museum, Death of Socrates as shown below.

Not least of the music's virtue is its brevity. Still, I must admit I was wearied while listening to it, but it is supposed to be the greatest work by an estimable composer, and it is about Socrates, so it needs to be admitted to this group of works.

This symphony, subtitled "Aphorisms", is a magnificent thirty-two minute choral work based on the fragmentary aphoristic words of Heraclitus. Five of the six parts contain choral sections, more or less declaiming Heraclitus' texts (whose meaning is not all that easy to fathom); the third part is an instrumental Scherzo. The composer treats the choir as one of many instruments, but the noble words, almost ascetic in their clarity, gain extra weight by the dramatic, imaginative orchestral coloring. The last few minutes, with the choir whispering the words: "The road up and down one and the same", is pure magic. A most original work!

I can't resist including this 2 minute-long piece by one of my favorite composer, Alkan, who by the way was a Talmudic scholar and died when heavy volumes of the Talmud fell on him and was crushed. Apparently, of the Greek philosophers, Heraclitus hold special interest for musicians. At any rate, Heraclitus was called "The Dark Philospher", and Democritus "The Laughing Philosopher". In the music they hold forth, both separately and together, interrupting each other most rudely. Ordinarily Alkan would have seen to it that Heraclitus--whose lonely life and contempt for mankind mirrored his own misanthropy--had the last word. Alkan must have been feeling chipper when he allowed Democritus to win the day, roaring off the scene with a side-splitting bellylaugh.

There is too much music, even too much good music, in this category to treat in detail. Therefore, in the following I will only indicate the highlights of some of my favorites. The Appendix gives a more complete list for the curious. I must, however, point out that the brevity of treatment in comparison to the above two Sections does not imply an inferiority of content. The works in the present category are at the same high level as those in the foregoing. If there is a generalization that can be made it is that the present works do not quite have, nor do they require, the same degree of gravitas and insight as those in the first section. The benefit, for at least some, is that they are more tuneful.

This section could not be prefaced better than with a quote by Richard Strauss's librettist, Hugo von Hofmannstahl: "Let us compose mythological operas. Ultimately they are the truest". He may well have been right, but nowhere more than in Richard Strauss's Ariadne auf Naxos. For me, its last 45 minutes is one of the glories of operatic music. Nobody has exceeded it in its ecstatic, rapturous love music between the abandoned Ariadne and Bacchus (Dionysus). There is a similarly ecstatic painting (shown below) of this couple by Titian in the National Gallery in London, which ought to be looked at while listening to the opera.

Though there have been many paintings dealing with this topic, for me no other painter has succeeded in capturing the wild abandon of the naked Bacchus leaping out of the waves to rescue Ariadne, One wonders whether Strauss has seen it. The other operas by Strauss, given in the Appendix are almost at the same overall level of excellence. Even though Handel's operas were written before 1800, they belong to this pantheon. If I can single out only one opera, it would have to be Semele. The choruses are worthy of his The Messiah, the arias are so touching, so beautiful that one mourns anew Semele's impetuous, yet eternally female (at least until the 20^th century), request to see Jupiter in his real form. His other operas are also uniformly superb; if they do not show the ultimate in psychological insight, they yield the ultimate in Handel's music, and that is pretty high. Berlioz' gargantuan 5-act opera, Les Troyens, based on Virgil's Aeneid, evokes admiration rather than love, but it is a magnificent achievement. It is lucky that Cesar Frank's Psyche and Eros is abstract music, if it were an opera it would surely be X-rated, such is it's luscious, erotic music. Almost the same can be said about Roussel's Bacchus et Arianne. A special mention must be made of the motoric, visionary, pointillistic, L'Envoi d'Icare, by Markevitch, depicting the ill-fated flight of Icarus, using quarter-tone tuning. A fantastic work in both senses of the word. Finally, I cannot leave this Section without touching on Offenbach's operettas. They are full of the greatest tunes, along with a melange of Greek characters, and a wit worthy of Aristophanes. Only for the irreverent.

Ancient Greek thought, drama, and mythology has served as lasting inspiration for classical opera and symphonic music. This article has discussed the most important musical works dealing with the above. These works are superb on their own, but the pleasure they afford is magnified when their origin is known. Similarly, of course, the greatest of Greek tragedies provide satisfaction of their own, but refracted through their musical counterpart gives additional insight into the original works.

The musical culture of ancient Greece is known more through literary references than through preserved musical documents. About 20 fragments of music are extant, written in a relatively late Greek notational system, but references to music performed at various rites and social occasions abound in the works of ancient Greek authors. Consequently, most modern discussions of Greek music either speculate about the sound of the music itself, or deal with the role and nature of music in that society.

Dionysus the god of wine and ecstatic revelry. These are some of the instruments Harry Partsch used in his Revelation in the Courthouse Park. The most important of mythic musicians in ancient Greek culture was Orpheus, whose music had the power to cause inanimate objects to move and even influence the forces of Hades. The Orpheus legend, by the way, was undoubtedly the most widely used subject in the history of early opera.

This topic allows me to smuggle into this article Gluck's opera, Orpheus ed Euridice, whose music is too good to miss. The orchestral numbers, The Dance of the Blessed Spirits and The Dance of the Furies have seldom been equaled in descriptive power.

Among the earliest Greek musicians whose existence and accomplishments seem to be rooted in reality as well as legend are Terpander of Lesbos (7th century BC), the founder of lyric kithara performance, Pindar of Thebes (6th-5th century BC), whose odes represent the rise of Greek choral music, and Timotheus of Miletus (5th-4th century BC), a virtuoso performer on the kithara whose inventions contributed to his infamy as well as his fame. The musical and lyrical tradition represented by these personalities reached its apex in the Athenian drama of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, a dramatic tradition in which solo and choral singing, instrumental music, and dance all played essential roles.

Although many names of musicians are recorded in ancient sources, none played a more important role in the development of Greek musical thought than Pythagoras of Samos (6th-5th century BC). He was the first to associate music with mathematics. According to legend, Pythagoras, by divine guidance, discovered the mathematical rationale of musical consonance from the weights of hammers used by smiths. He discovered the connection between musical harmony and the whole numbers, by recognizing that the sound caused by the plucked string depends on the length of the string. He is thus given credit for discovering that the interval of an octave is rooted in the ratio 2:1, that of the fifth in 3:2, that of the fourth in 4:3, and that of the whole tone in 9:8. Followers of Pythagoras applied these ratios to lengths of a string on an instrument called a canon, or monochord, and thereby were able to determine mathematically the intonation of an entire musical system. The Pythagoreans saw these ratios as governing forces in the cosmos as well as in sounds, and Plato's Timaeus describes the soul of the world as structured according to these same musical ratios.

All this above can be illustrated in the following. (I apologize for the fact that one of the pictures are missibg--I will try to upload it but I am not very good at that kind of thing)

This triangular figure of numbers in the shape of the Greek letter Lamda is the Tetrad of the Pythagorians. As was discussed by Plato in his dissertation On the Composition of the Soul, it is a set of numbers whose relationships with each other seemed to summarize all the inter-dependent harmonies within the universe of space and time.

Pythagoras taught that each of the seven planets produced by its orbit a particular note according to its distance from the still center, which was the Earth. The distance in each case was like the subdivisions of the string referred to above. (It is difficult to resist a modern analogy to our view of the atomic model, in which the electrons move around the nucleus in orbits whose characteristic length has to be an even multiple of a particular number. Well, more accurately, the allowed orbits, or so-called stationary states, are determined by the condition that the angular momentum J of the orbiting electron must be a positive multiple integral of Planck's constant, divided by 2 ð, that is, J = nh/2p, where the quantum number n may have any positive integer value). The music thus produced is what was called Musica Mundana, which is usually translated as Music of the Spheres. (Needless to say, it proved irresistible to some composers; the Danish composer Rued Langaard wrote a symphonic tone poem of that title. Its music is so otherworldly that Pythagoras, surely would have approved). Unlike Langaard's work, the sound the Spheres produced in Pythagoras' version is so exquisite and rarified that our ordinary ears are unable to hear it. It is the Cosmic Music which, according to Philo of Alexandria, Moses had heard when he received the Tablets on Mount Sinai, and which St. Augustine believed men hear on the point of death, revealing to them the highest reality of the Cosmos¹¹. This music is present everywhere and governs all temporal cycles, such as the seasons, biological cycles, and all the rhythms of nature. Together with its underlying mathematical laws of proportion it is the sound of the harmony of the created being of the universe, the harmony of what Plato called the "one visible living being, containing within itself all living beings of the same natural order".

For the Pythagoreans, as well as for Plato, music consequently became a branch of mathematics as well as an art; this tradition of musical thought flourished throughout antiquity in such theorists as Nicomachus of Gerasa (2d century AD) and Ptolemy (2d century AD) and was transmitted into the Middle Ages by Boethius. The mathematics and intonation of the Pythagorean tradition consequently became a crucial influence in the development of music in medieval Europe. Followers of the peripatetic tradition, especially Aristoxenus (4th century BC) found the Pythagorean ratios too archaic and restrictive and began a more empirical tradition of ancient musical thought. For the Pythagorians, different musical modes have different effects on the person who hears them; Pythagoras once cured a youth of his drunkenness by prescribing a melody in the Hypophrygian mode in spondaic rhythm. Apparently the Phrygian mode would have had the opposite effect and would have overexcited him. Modern composers, including Beethoven, have employed some of these modes in their works. At the healing centers of Asclepieion at Pergamum and Epidauros in Greece, patients underwent therapy accompanied by music. The Roman statesman, philosopher and mathematician, Boethius (480-524 AD) explained that the soul and the body are subject to the same laws of proportion that govern music and the cosmos itself. We are happiest when we conform to these laws because "we love similarity, but hate and resent dissimilarity"¹².

Although little of ancient Greek music survives, Greek musical thought has profoundly affected the manner in which Western culture has expressed itself in this art.

² Aeschylos and Wagner, Evans, M. Faber, 1982

³ Introductory notes to Oedipe, EMI

⁴ Stravinsky : Notes to the 1963 performance of Oedipus Rex

⁵ Honegger by M. Landowski, Coll. Solfages (1957), Editions du Seul

⁶ Jefferson, liner notes to Elektra London OSA 1269

⁸1993 Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc.

⁹ Dr. Costantine Papadakis, President of Drexel University, The Contributions of ¹⁰Ancient Greece to Science and Technology

J. Boyd-Brent, 1995, About Scotland Art Pages

¹¹Carlo Bertelli: Piero della Francesca, p. 60.

¹²De Institutione Musica, 1,1. from Umberto Eco, Art and Beauty in the Middle Ages. p. 31.